The concept of intelligence: reading answers and analysis
Robert Sternberg explains why people's unspoken ideas about intelligence, called implicit theories, matter for everyday judgments and for science. He then sets out three views of how intelligence relates to society: Hamiltonian, Jeffersonian and Jacksonian.
Section matching (1-3) is all in A to D. The YES / NO / NOT GIVEN statements (4-6) come from B, E and J. The theory matching (7-13) uses G, H and I, and the statements are mixed up.
Answer key and self-check
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Q
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Answer
Questions 1-3 · Matching information (sections A-J)
How to attack this block: The first four sections each give one reason implicit theories matter, so match each item to the right reason. 'Non-scientists' points to everyday people like parents and interviewers. The point about a mismatch between implicit and explicit theories is the third reason.
Question 1
Answer: BSection B
Which section shows ordinary people's ideas about intelligence shaping how they treat others?
Job interviewers will make hiring decisions on the basis of their implicit theories of intelligence. People will decide who to be friends with on the basis of such theories.
Question says → Passage says
non-scientists' assumptions about intelligencepeople's implicit theories
influence their behaviour towards othersmake hiring decisions / decide who to be friends with
Why: B is full of everyday people (parents, interviewers, friends) acting on their unspoken ideas about intelligence: correcting children, hiring, choosing friends. That's behaviour towards others.
The trap: C also talks about implicit theories, but those belong to scientific investigators, and the item specifically says non-scientists.
Question 2
Answer: ASection A, first two sentences
Which section mentions that nobody is sure how to define intelligence?
Looked at in one way, everyone knows what intelligence is; looked at in another way, no one does.
Question says → Passage says
lack of clarity over the definition of intelligenceno one knows for certain what it actually is
Why: A opens by saying no one knows for certain what intelligence actually is. Not knowing what something is means the definition is unclear.
The trap: J says scholars miss each other's point, which sounds like confusion, but it's about failing to discuss assumptions, not about the definition.
Question 3
Answer: DSection D
Which section says a researcher's implicit and explicit theories may not match?
If an investigation of implicit theories reveals little correspondence between the extant implicit and explicit theories, the implicit theories may be wrong.
Question says → Passage says
may be very differentlittle correspondence between
implicit and explicit theoriesthe extant implicit and explicit theories
Why: 'Little correspondence' means they don't match much, so they may be very different. D then discusses which of the two might be wrong.
The trap: C links implicit and explicit theories too, but it says one gives rise to the other, which is about connection, not difference.
YES / NO / NOT GIVEN
Questions 4-6
How to attack this block: Each statement is about a single sentence. The first adds an emotion (disappointment) that isn't there. The second claims something is universal when the passage says it depends on culture. The last restates the final paragraph.
Question 4
Answer: NOT GIVENSection B
Does the writer say slow language development is likely to disappoint parents?
parents' implicit theories of their children's language development will determine at what ages they will be willing to make various corrections in their children's speech
Question says → Passage says
language development in childrentheir children's language development
Why: NOT GIVEN. The writer says parents' theories decide when they correct their children's speech. There's nothing about slow development, and nothing about how parents feel.
The trap: It's easy to assume that a parent who corrects speech is unhappy with it. The passage only talks about timing, not disappointment.
Question 5
Answer: NOSection E
Are expectations about what children get from education the same everywhere?
How these expectations differ is in part a function of culture.
Question says → Passage says
universalis in part a function of culture
People's expectationsexpectations for intellectual performances that differ
Why: NO. The writer says expectations differ, partly because of culture, and gives the example of children in Western-style schools versus others. 'Universal' means the same everywhere, which contradicts this.
The trap: Some choose NOT GIVEN because the passage talks about intellectual performance rather than 'what children gain'. But the schooling example makes clear expectations vary, which is enough for NO.
Question 6
Answer: YESSection J, last sentence
Can scholars discuss theories without really understanding each other?
Until scholars are able to discuss their implicit theories and thus their assumptions, they are likely to miss the point of what others are saying
Question says → Passage says
without fully understanding each otherlikely to miss the point of what others are saying
discuss theorieswhen discussing their explicit theories and their data
Why: YES. The writer says scholars discussing explicit theories are likely to miss each other's point. Missing the point means not fully understanding.
Matching features (theories A-C)
Questions 7-13
How to attack this block: Read G, H and I one at a time and note each view's key idea: born unequal and ruled by the clever (Hamiltonian), equal chances but rewards for results (Jeffersonian), everyone equal and able to learn anything (Jacksonian). The Hamiltonian view answers three statements.
Question 7
Answer: BSection H, first sentence
Which theory says everyone should have the same opportunities?
The Jeffersonian view is that people should have equal opportunities
Question says → Passage says
the same possibilities to be open to everyonepeople should have equal opportunities
Why: The Jeffersonian view starts with equal opportunities. 'The same possibilities open to everyone' is a straight paraphrase.
The trap: The Jacksonian view (C) says all people are equal, which sounds similar. But it's about people being equal in ability, not about opportunities.
Question 8
Answer: CSection I, last sentence
Which theory says no group should be favoured over another?
In this view, we do not need or want any institutions that might lead to favoring one group over another.
Question says → Passage says
No section of societyone group
preferential treatment at the expense of anotherfavoring one group over another
Why: The Jacksonian view rejects any institution that might favour one group over another. 'Preferential treatment' is 'favoring', and 'section of society' is 'group'.
The trap: The Jeffersonian view (B) says education shouldn't 'favor or foster an elite'. That's only about the elite, while the Jacksonian view rules out favouring any group.
Question 9
Answer: BSection H
Which theory says rewards should depend only on what people achieve?
People are rewarded for what they accomplish, if given equal opportunity. Low achievers are not rewarded to the same extent as high achievers.
Question says → Passage says
gain benefitsare rewarded
on the basis of what they actually achievefor what they accomplish
Why: In the Jeffersonian view, people are rewarded for what they accomplish, and low achievers get less. 'Rewarded' is 'gain benefits', and 'accomplish' is 'achieve'.
The trap: The Hamiltonian view (A) also produces unequal outcomes, but there the clever lead because of birth, not because of what they achieve.
Question 10
Answer: ASection G, first sentence
Which theory says differences in intelligence start at birth?
people are born with different levels of intelligence
Question says → Passage says
Variation in intelligencedifferent levels of intelligence
begins at birthare born with
Why: The Hamiltonian view says people are born with different levels of intelligence. That's variation that begins at birth.
The trap: The Jacksonian view (C) also mentions people being equal 'as human beings', but it argues against built-in differences, so it's the opposite.
Question 11
Answer: ASection G
Which theory says the more intelligent should hold power?
those who are less intelligent need the good offices of the more intelligent to keep them in line, whether they are called government officials or, in Plato's term, philosopher-kings
Question says → Passage says
The more intelligent peoplethe more intelligent / a cognitive (high-IQ) elite
should be in positions of powerto keep them in line / government officials / philosopher-kings
Why: The Hamiltonian view has the intelligent keeping the rest 'in line', as officials or philosopher-kings. Those are positions of power.
The trap: The Jacksonian view (C) mentions government too, but says anyone could serve as well as anyone else. That's the opposite of rule by the clever.
Question 12
Answer: CSection I
Which theory says everyone can learn the same skills?
people are essentially intersubstitutable except for specialized skills, all of which can be learned
Question says → Passage says
Everyone can develop the same abilitiesall people are equal… in terms of their competencies / specialized skills, all of which can be learned
Why: The Jacksonian view says people are equal in competence and can replace each other, and even specialised skills 'can be learned'. So anyone can develop the same abilities.
The trap: The Jeffersonian view (B) lets children make full use of 'the skills they have'. That assumes skills differ; it doesn't say everyone can develop the same ones.
Question 13
Answer: ASection G, last two sentences
Which theory says less intelligent people tend to live chaotic lives?
the largely irresponsible masses of non-elite (low-IQ) people who cannot take care of themselves. Left to themselves, the unintelligent would create, as they always have created, a kind of chaos.
Question says → Passage says
People of low intelligencethe unintelligent / non-elite (low-IQ) people
likely to lead uncontrolled livescreate… a kind of chaos / cannot take care of themselves
Why: The Hamiltonian view, through Herrnstein and Murray, says low-IQ people can't look after themselves and would create chaos if left alone. Chaos is an uncontrolled life.
The trap: The Jeffersonian view (B) mentions 'low achievers', but only says they get fewer rewards. It doesn't say they live chaotically.
C. The key is 'all of which can be learned' at the end of I.
Words from this passage worth keeping
conceptualize(A)
form an idea of what something is
implicit(A)
held without being stated or even noticed
explicit(C)
clearly stated and formally set out
correspondence(D)
a match or similarity between two things
extant(D)
still existing; current
elucidate(E)
make something clear; explain
avail themselves of(H)
make use of something available
presupposition(J)
something assumed before an argument starts
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The full Cambridge 14 Test 3 reading paper: all three passages, 60 minutes, marked the second you finish with a review of every answer. Already done it? Take it again and see if the same traps still get you.
Cambridge IELTS 14, Test 3, Reading Passage 1. The passage and questions belong to Cambridge University Press and are not reproduced here. We quote short extracts only as evidence for our own commentary, and the answers are published for self-marking. Get the book for the full text, or sit the test on Langujet.
