The writer challenges the idea, linked to Richard Dawkins, that humans are selfish by nature. Prehistoric populations were tiny, so there was little to fight over, and modern hunter-gatherers like the !Kung are strongly egalitarian. Selfishness, hierarchy and war, he argues, came recently, with farming and a new sense of separateness.
The multiple choice (27-30) walks through the first five paragraphs. The summary (31-35) covers Knauft and the !Kung in paragraphs five and six. YES / NO / NOT GIVEN (36-40) covers paragraphs seven to nine.
Multiple choice
Questions 27-30
How to attack this block: This passage argues a case, so each question asks what a paragraph does in that argument. The opening describes a common belief (C) that the writer goes on to attack. Dawkins' book succeeded because it suited the competitive mood of its time, not because of its science.
Question 27
Answer: CParagraph 1
What is the purpose of the opening paragraph?
There has long been a general assumption that human beings are essentially selfish. We're apparently ruthless
Question says → Passage says
a commonly held beliefa general assumption
people's behaviourhuman beings are essentially selfish
Why: The paragraph sets out what most people assume: humans are selfish and only good when they control it. 'General assumption' = 'commonly held belief'. Words like 'apparently' show the writer is reporting the view, not holding it.
The trap: D is the strongest distractor because the paragraph explains selfishness in detail. But the writer goes on to reject this view, so he's describing it, not giving his own reasons. A fails because only one view is given.
Question 28
Answer: CParagraph 2, first sentence
What does the writer say about Dawkins' book The Selfish Gene?
became popular because it fitted so well with - and helped to justify - the competitive and individualistic ethos that was so prevalent in late 20th-century societies
Question says → Passage says
in line withfitted so well with
the attitudes of its timethe competitive and individualistic ethos that was so prevalent in late 20th-century societies
Why: The book was popular because it matched the competitive, individualistic attitudes common in the late 20th century. 'Fitted so well with' = 'in line with', and 'ethos' = 'attitudes'. That's C.
The trap: B picks up the next sentence, where Dawkins uses evolutionary psychology to justify his views. But the writer gives the fit with the times as the reason for its popularity, not science. A and D are the opposite: fitting with common attitudes isn't radical or innovative.
Question 29
Answer: BParagraph 4, last sentence
What does the writer suggest about prehistoric times in the fourth paragraph?
With such small population densities, it seems unlikely that prehistoric hunter-gatherer groups had to compete against each other for resources
Question says → Passage says
probablyit seems unlikely
Supplies of natural resources were… relatively plentifulunlikely that… had to compete against each other for resources
Why: With so few people, groups probably didn't need to compete for resources. If you don't need to compete, there's enough to go around, so resources were relatively plentiful. That's B.
The trap: C picks up 'According to some estimates', but the writer uses the figures as support, not to question them. A and D (complex societies, movement across continents) aren't mentioned.
Question 30
Answer: AParagraph 5
What idea does the writer use Knauft's work to support?
There is significant evidence to back this notion from contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, who live in the same way as prehistoric humans did.
Question says → Passage says
as support for the ideaevidence to back this notion
selfishness is a relatively recent developmentindividuals in such groups don't accumulate property or possessions and have an ethical obligation to share everything
Why: 'This notion' is the claim that prehistoric people had no need for ruthlessness or competition. Knauft shows hunter-gatherers living the old way are equal and share everything. So selfishness wasn't there from the start, it came later. That's A.
The trap: C is tempting because the passage says these groups 'live in the same way as prehistoric humans did'. But the writer doesn't say how many lifestyles survived; that line just explains why the groups are good evidence. B and D aren't claimed.
Summary completion (ONE WORD ONLY)
Questions 31-35
How to attack this block: All five answers are abstract nouns or an adjective from paragraphs five and six. Question 33 is a paraphrase to decode: the credit goes to whoever owns the arrow, so the success being credited is at hunting.
Question 31
Answer: egalitarianismParagraph 5, second sentence
What do hunter-gatherer societies show a high level of in every area of life?
hunter-gatherers are characterised by 'extreme political and sexual egalitarianism'
Question says → Passage says
tend to exhibit a high level ofare characterised by 'extreme
in all areas of lifepolitical and sexual
Why: 'Characterised by' = 'tend to exhibit', and 'extreme' = 'a high level of'. Political and sexual covers the main areas of life. The gap is a noun: 'egalitarianism'. Check the spelling carefully.
The trap: 'Political' or 'sexual' are adjectives describing the areas, which the summary already covers. The noun is the quality itself.
Question 32
Answer: statusParagraph 5, last sentence
What kind of differences do these societies try to prevent?
They also have methods of preserving egalitarianism by ensuring that disparities of status don't arise.
Question says → Passage says
employ strategieshave methods
to prevent differences in ___ occurringensuring that disparities of status don't arise
Why: 'Disparities' = 'differences', and 'don't arise' = 'prevent… occurring'. The disparities are of status, so 'status' fills the gap.
The trap: 'Egalitarianism' is in the same sentence but it's the answer to 31 and what the methods preserve, not the kind of difference.
Question 33
Answer: huntingParagraph 6, first sentence
Credit for one person's success at what is given to someone else among the !Kung?
swap arrows before going hunting and when an animal is killed, the acclaim does not go to the person who fired the arrow, but to the person the arrow belongs to
Question says → Passage says
the creditthe acclaim
is given to another member of the groupdoes not go to the person who fired the arrow, but to the person the arrow belongs to
Why: The success is killing an animal on a hunt, and the acclaim goes to the arrow's owner, not the shooter. 'Success at ___' needs an activity, and 'hunting' is in the passage.
The trap: 'Arrow' or 'arrows' are things, not an activity you succeed at. Writing 'killing' doesn't use the passage's word for the activity.
Question 34
Answer: domineeringParagraph 6, second sentence
What kind of behaviour gets someone excluded from the group?
if a person becomes too domineering, the other members of the group ostracise them, exiling the offender from society
Question says → Passage says
punished by being excluded from the groupostracise them, exiling the offender
behave in a ___ mannerbecomes too domineering
Why: 'Ostracise' and 'exile' both mean push someone out of the group. The behaviour that causes it is being too domineering. The gap is an adjective before 'manner': 'domineering'.
The trap: 'Selfish' or 'ruthless' sound right for the passage's theme and appear in paragraph 7, where selfish people would also be ostracised. But the summary follows paragraph 6 and Knauft's examples, where the word is 'domineering'.
Question 35
Answer: autonomyParagraph 6, second half
What do women have a lot of when choosing work and marriage partners?
Women in hunter-gatherer groups worldwide often benefit from a high level of autonomy, being able to select their own marriage partners, decide what work they do
Question says → Passage says
a considerable amount ofa high level of
choices regarding work and marriageselect their own marriage partners, decide what work they do
Why: 'A high level of autonomy' = 'a considerable amount of autonomy', and the examples are choosing partners and work. Autonomy means the freedom to decide for yourself.
The trap: 'Custody rights' come in the next sentence, but they're about children after a marriage ends, not choices about work and marriage. 'Rights' alone doesn't fit 'amount of ___ in choices'.
YES / NO / NOT GIVEN
Questions 36-40
How to attack this block: Question 37 is the one to watch. The writer says warlike traits would have been of little benefit in prehistory, and that selfish, ruthless people were less likely to survive. That contradicts 'an advantage', so the answer is NO. The NOT GIVENs bring in anthropologists being mistaken and differences between modern cultures, which the writer never discusses.
Question 36
Answer: NOT GIVENParagraph 7, first sentence
Does the writer say some anthropologists are wrong about when societies like the !Kung started to decline?
Many anthropologists believe that societies such as the !Kung were normal until a few thousand years ago
Question says → Passage says
Some anthropologistsMany anthropologists
the point when the number of societies such as the !Kung began to declinewere normal until a few thousand years ago
Why: The writer reports the anthropologists' view and then builds on it ('In view of the above'), so he certainly doesn't call them mistaken. But he never says other anthropologists hold a wrong view on the timing. Nobody is said to be mistaken, so NOT GIVEN.
The trap: NO is tempting because the writer seems to agree with these anthropologists. But the statement is about 'some' anthropologists being mistaken, which could be a different group. The passage simply doesn't discuss any who disagree.
Question 37
Answer: NOParagraph 7, second half
Would warlike people in prehistory have had an advantage?
traits such as racism, warfare and male domination should have been selected by evolution - as they would have been of little benefit in the prehistoric era
Question says → Passage says
warlike traitswarfare
would have had an advantagewould have been of little benefit
Why: The writer says warfare would have been 'of little benefit' in prehistoric times, and that selfish, ruthless people were less likely to survive because they'd be ostracised. 'Little benefit' contradicts 'an advantage', so NO.
The trap: Paragraph 3 describes prehistory as a brutal fight where only the aggressive survived. That's the common view the writer is arguing against, not his own. Always check whose view a sentence gives.
Question 38
Answer: YESParagraph 8, first sentence
Does the writer think peacefulness and cooperation come naturally to people?
It makes more sense, then, to see traits such as cooperation, egalitarianism, altruism and peacefulness as innate characteristics of human beings.
Question says → Passage says
Being peaceful and cooperativecooperation… peacefulness
a natural way for people to behaveinnate characteristics of human beings
Why: 'Innate' means you're born with it, so it's natural. The writer says it makes more sense to see cooperation and peacefulness this way, and adds that these traits are probably still strong in us. YES.
The trap: 'It makes more sense' sounds cautious, but it's still the writer's view, and that's all YES needs.
Question 39
Answer: NOT GIVENLast paragraph
Does the writer say negative traits show more in some modern cultures than others?
I believe that the end of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle and the advent of farming was connected to a psychological change that occurred in some groups of people.
Question says → Passage says
Negative traitsthese negative traits / a new selfishness
Why: The writer says the change happened in 'some groups of people' when farming began. That's about where the traits started long ago, not a comparison of modern cultures. No modern comparison is made, so NOT GIVEN.
The trap: 'Some groups of people' looks like the 'some cultures' in the statement, which pushes people to YES. Check the time: the writer is talking about the start of farming, not cultures today.
Question 40
Answer: NOParagraph 9, last sentence
Has animal research found no link between environmental change and aggression?
Research has shown repeatedly that when the natural habitats of primates such as apes and gorillas are disrupted, they tend to become more violent and hierarchical.
Question says → Passage says
Animal researchResearch… primates such as apes and gorillas
changes in the environmentthe natural habitats… are disrupted
the emergence of aggressive tendenciesthey tend to become more violent
Why: Research has 'shown repeatedly' that when primates' habitats are disrupted, they become more violent. That's a clear link, so the statement saying research 'failed to reveal' one is contradicted. NO.
The trap: Some people pick NOT GIVEN because the research is about apes, not humans. The statement is about animal research, and apes and gorillas are animals, so the passage does answer it.
NO. 'Of little benefit', plus the line that ruthless individuals would be pushed out of their groups, directly contradicts the idea that warlike humans had an advantage.
NO. The research repeatedly shows that primates become more violent when their habitat is disrupted, which is exactly the link the statement says wasn't found.
B. The writer never says resources were plentiful, but with under half a million people on Earth there was no need to compete for them. That inference is the answer.
Words from this passage worth keeping
ulterior motives(Paragraph 1)
hidden reasons for doing something
transcend(Paragraph 1)
rise above or go beyond
ethos(Paragraph 2)
the typical attitudes and values of a group or time
sparsely populated(Paragraph 4)
with very few people living there
egalitarianism(Paragraph 5)
the belief that all people are equal and should be treated equally
disparities(Paragraph 5)
large differences
ostracise(Paragraph 6)
exclude someone from a group
autonomy(Paragraph 6)
freedom to make your own decisions
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The full Cambridge 19 Test 4 reading paper: all three passages, 60 minutes, marked the second you finish with a review of every answer. Already done it? Take it again and see if the same traps still get you.
Cambridge IELTS 19, Test 4, Reading Passage 3. The passage and questions belong to Cambridge University Press and are not reproduced here. We quote short extracts only as evidence for our own commentary, and the answers are published for self-marking. Get the book for the full text, or sit the test on Langujet.
